1-4) (Balech 1976). The cingulum bears two narrow well developed lists: an anterior cingular list (ACL), and a posterior cingular list (PCL) (Figs. A protruding periflagellar collar surrounds the auxiliary pore (Fig. This species forms extensive red tides in many parts of the world (Fukuyo et al. Discharged trichocysts have been observed (Davis 1948; Steidinger et al. Different strains apparently exhibit a preference for certain algae; e.g. 1979). Thecal Plate Description: The plate formula for A. tamiyavanichi is: Po, 4', 6'', 6c, 10s, 5''', 2''''. In some regions, researchers map the location and abundance of these benthic cysts, and use these data to predict and model bloom dynamics. 1995; Steidinger & Tangen 1996). Toxicity can vary considerably among seasons and areas where it blooms (Taylor et al. Valves are concave in the center (Figs. 3) and also sexually via formation of isogametes. 1985) and the U.S. (Freudenthal & Jijina 1985). The left sulcal list (LSL) is well developed and very long; it can extend up to 4/5 of the cell length (Figs. Also present is a pusule, a C-shaped nucleus, and scintillons (light-emitting organelles) (Kofoid 1911; Schmitter 1971; Jeffrey et al. The large nucleus is slightly off-center (Figs. Taxonomic Description: A. pseudogonyaulax cells are medium to large, irregularly pentagonal-shaped with moderate dorso-ventral flattening. 1, 2, 5, 6). Thecal Plate Description: The epitheca is slightly convex and inclined ventrally (Figs. Tindall et al. 2) or slightly rounded (Fig. 6) (Fukuyo 1981). 58Type Locality: Tasman Sea: Hobsons Bay, Melbourne, AustraliaSynonyms: Gymnodinium type '84-K Onoue et al., 1985. 4). Morphology and Structure: Dinophysis norvegica is a photosynthetic species with yellow chloroplasts and a posteriorly oriented nucleus (Fig. 1998), with a few reports from the Atlantic Ocean (Murray & Whitting 1900; Cleve 1900; 1902). 1995). 1990; Steidinger & Tangen 1996). 1, 2, 5). 1978; Silva 1962). This small species has been associated with fish and shellfish mortality events. Alexandrium monilatum Taxonomy ID: 311494 (for references in articles please use NCBI:txid311494) current name Alexandrium monilatum basionym: Gonyaulax monilata J.F.Howell 1953 NCBI BLAST name: dinoflagellates Rank: species Genetic code: Translation table 1 (Standard) 1, 2). The nucleus is U-shaped and equatorial (Fig. Approximately 500-550 areolae are present on each theca, along with 70-80 evenly spaced marginal areolae. 1996; Steidinger & Tangen 1996); and b) the pentagonal and dorso-ventrally elongate 1p plate in the hypotheca (Faust et al. Ia-gType Locality: Mediterranean Sea: Alexandria Harbor, EgyptSynonyms: Alexandrium ibericum Balech, 1985bAlexandrium lusitanicum Balech, 1985b. and p.a.p); c) the 1' plate in A. hiranoi is slender and rectangular, whereas in A. pseudogonyaulax the 1' is almost pentagonal; d) the cyst of A. hiranoi is smooth, while the cyst of A. pseudogonyaulax is paratabulate with thick sutures; and e) A. hiranoi is found in rockpools, A. pseudogonyaulax is found in coastal brackish habitats (Kita & Fukuyo 1988; Montresor et al. Past and recent reports of laboratory and field staff exposure have shown temporary symptoms of watery eyes, runny nose, and mouth irritation during exposure. The hypotheca is slightly longer than the epitheca (Figs. 1988). Reproduction: P. concavum reproduces asexually by binary fission. It was discovered from French Polynesia, New Caledonia and the Ryukyu Islands, Pacific Ocean. Resting cysts of A. tamarense can also harbor PSP toxins. G. breve and G. breve-like species have also been reported from the West Atlantic, Spain, Greece, Japan and New Zealand (Fukuyo et al. 1, 5). This cosmopolitan species is a red tide former that has been associated with fish and shellfish mortality events. This species has two pusules in the sulcus and one dorsal red pyrenoid (Quod 1994). There are two sized pores present: smaller pores are scattered (Figs. 4) (Larsen & Moestrup 1992; Taylor et al. This species was initially linked to serious health problems in humans who had come in direct contact with it (narcosis, respiratory distress, epidermal lesions, and short-term memory loss); however, a study sponsored by the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) has revealed no such relationship (Swinker et al. The wide and deeply excavated cingulum is pre-median, and is displaced in a descending spiral about 2 times its width (Figs. The left-handed cingulum is post-median and displaced about 1.5 times its width without overhanging (Figs. 1995; Steidinger & Tangen 1996). Species Comparisons: O. ovata differs from the other species in the genus by its small size, very delicate thecal plates and a short, straight Po. 4). Cells range in size between 31-41 m in length and 26-35 m in transdiameter width (Balech 1995; Fukuyo et al. A lunar-shaped nucleus is situated ventrally just inside the cingulum (Fig. In the absence of fish, biflagellated stages feed myzocytotically on bacteria, algae and microfauna; i.e. 1990; Steidinger & Tangen 1996). Hansen et al. 1980). A short apical spine is sometimes observable (Figs. The dorsal margin is straight or undulating: convex below the cingulum, slightly concave in the middle, and convex again posteriorly (Figs. 1995; Steidinger & Tangen 1996). Once environmental conditions were favorable again, the cysts were able to re-seed the area, and thus initiate another red tide event. 2, 3) (Ab 1967; Larsen & Moestrup 1992; Taylor et al. The presence of a peduncle-like structure may indicate mixotrophic feeding within the sand (Faust 1994). Toxicity: P. mexicanum is a known toxin-producing species (Steidinger 1983; Carlson 1984; Tindall et al. The left valve is slightly indented anteriorly with a thickened apical ridge (raised margin) bordering the periflagellar area (Fig. The cyst is smooth and round to ovoid. The gametes are rounder and slightly smaller than the vegetative cells (18-24 m in diameter). This species is associated with floating detritus and sediment in tropical embayments of the Caribbean Sea. Habitat and Locality: D. caudata is common in temperate to tropical neritic waters (Ab 1967; Fukuyo et al. Moreover, A. ostenfeldii is a larger cell and produces PSP toxins (Balech 1995; Steidinger & Tangen 1996; Taylor et al. Cells are slightly longer than wide with a characteristic long and straight apical groove to the right of the sulcal axis (Figs. The transversely elongated nucleus is large and curved, and centrally located (Balech 1995; Montresor 1995). Taxonomic Description: P. ruetzlerianum is a bivalvate species often observed in valve view. 2000). Taxonomic Description: A very distinctive chain-forming species, A. monilatum typically occurs in long chains of 16 or more cells. This species can be a significant component of benthic Prorocentrum assemblages in colored sand patches in the Caribbean (1200-6000 cells/g sand) (Faust 1994). Ecology: P. faustiae is a benthic species epiphytic on macroalgae (Morton 1998). Cysts often contain colorless granules and distinct reddish lipid bodies. The deeply excavated cingulum is displaced in a descending fashion one time its width (Figs. Species Overview: A. monilatum is an armoured, marine, planktonic dinoflagellate. 3, 4) (Fukuyo et al. Hoshiai et al. Toxicity of this species to larval stages of two species of oysters in Puget Sound, Washington State. The hypotheca is notched by the widening sulcus at the antapex resulting in a lobed posterior (Figs. This species is responsible for PSP events in Taiwan (Hwang et al. 4). 1) (Graham 1943; Larsen & Moestrup 1989; Fukuyo et al. It is a toxic species found in coastal regions and brackish environments. 33a,Type Locality: Mediterranean Sea: Gulf of Lion, France, Synonyms: Exuviaella minima Pavillard, 1916Prorocentrum triangulatum Martin, 1929Exuviaella marie-lebouriae Parke and Ballantine, 1957Prorocentrum cordiformis Bursa, 1959Prorocentrum mariae-lebouriae (Parke and Ballantine, 1957) Loeblich III, 1970. With the shellfish aquaculture industry in the Chesapeake Bay region rapidly expanding (now worth over $45 million to Virginia alone), it is critical that we understand the risk posed to the health of marine organisms, as well as to humans through consumption of shellfish exposed to A. monilatum. 1995; Zingone et al. The well developed left sucal list (LSL) widens posteriorly and is often reticulated (Figs. 1995). 1). Opposite is a smaller periflagellar plate adjacent to the flagellar pore (Fig. Valve centers are concave (Figs. 1-3). This species has one dorsally situated nucleus located in the hypotheca. Morphology and Structure: G. galatheanum is a photosynthetic species with several round chloroplasts. The thecal plates are thin (Fig. Habitat and Locality: Prorocentrum balticum is commonly found in marine waters all over the world: cosmopolitan in cold temperate to tropical waters (Dodge 1975; 1982; Steidinger & Tangen 1996). 1-4). The right lobe is narrower and slightly longer than the left lobe (Silva 1967; Yuki & Yoshimatsu 1989; Fukuyo et al. monilata (Howell) Loeblich, 1970Pyrodinium monilatum (Howell) Taylor, 1976. No marginal pores are present and the cell center is devoid of areolae (Fig. The deeply excavated cingulum is nearly equatorial, and displaced one to two times its width. Ecology: P. concavum is a benthic species that can also be tycoplanktonic. And G. sanguineum is believed to be responsible for at least one reported fish mortality event in Peru (Jordan 1979). The sulcus is recessed and hidden (Fig. A large kidney-shaped nucleus is situated posteriorly (Morton 1998). Reproduction: D. rotundata reproduces asexually by binary fission. 1-3). The deep sulcus, with lists, widens posteriorly (Figs. This species is a recurring bloom former in coastal waters of Japan and Korea; red tides commonly occur in warmer months and are associated with massive fish and shellfish kills (Takayama & Adachi 1984). 1). Habitat and Locality: L. polyedrum is a widely distributed species found in warm temperate and subtropical waters of coastal areas (Kofoid 1911; Dodge 1985; 1989; Steidinger & Tangen 1996). Etymology: This species is named in honor of Dr. Robert S. Hoffmann, Assistant Secretary for Research, Smithsonian Institution, for his encouragement, support and scientific leadership (Faust 1990b). The 1' plate, the distinguishing plate for this species, is large and irregularly heptagonal (seven-sided) (Figs. 17Type Locality: North Sea: NorwaySynonyms: Dinophysis lachmannii Paulsen, 1949Dinophysis borealis Paulsen, 1949Dinophysis boehmii Paulsen, 1949. Habitat and Locality: D. tripos is widely distributed in tropical and temperate waters, and occasionally is found in colder regions (Larsen & Moestrup 1992; Taylor et al. Theca is smooth with scattered pores; trichocysts are present. It is displaced about 0.6 times the cell length, and descends in a distinct left-handed spiral of 1.8-1.9 turns around the cell. 1) (Faust et al. Blooms of this species are commonly reported in the Strait of Georgia, British Columbia (North Pacific Ocean) (Taylor & Haigh 1993). 1, 4). Alexandrium monilatum is a dinoflagellate that forms chains of cells attached to each other. Taxonomic Description: Noctiluca scintillans is a distinctively shaped athecate species in which the cell is not divided into epitheca and hypotheca. The peduncle, the proposed feeding apparatus, passes through the cytostomal opening in the theca when the cell is feeding (Jacobson & Andersen 1994). Reproduction: P. faustiae reproduces asexually by binary fission. Species Overview: P. faustiae is an armoured, marine, benthic dinoflagellate species. The thecal surface of P. maculosum is rugose, covered with large kidney-shaped poroids; a periflagellar collar surrounds both equally-sized flagellar and auxiliary pores (Faust 1993b). 1990; Taylor et al. 1). However, the actual toxin principles have yet to be ellucidated (Taylor et al. 3). A number of forms and varieties have been described: D. norvegica var. 1, 2, 5). Cells are oblong to ovate, small to medium-sized, broadest in the mid-region, and narrow toward the anterior end (Figs. Rapa whelks stopped feeding as dissolved oxygen and chlorophyll concentrations increased with the development of the bloom. The thick thecal plates are heavily areolated (Fig. 1989; Taylor et al. The areolae are round to oval (0.66-0.83 m in diameter) (Figs. Species Overview: Noctiluca scintillans is an unarmoured, marine planktonic dinoflagellate species. Cells range in size from 30-40 um in length to 20-30 um in width (Silva 1967; Yuki & Yoshimatsu 1989; Fukuyo et al. However, the architecture of the flagellar pore area was not considered. Within the different life stage forms there is a wide range in size and morphology (Steidinger et al. Reproduction: A. monilatum reproduces asexually by binary fission; plane of fission is oblique. 1991). Blooms of this species were first recorded from Walvis Bay, South Africa (Braarud 1957). The elliptical nucleus is C-shaped and equatorial (Whedon & Kofoid 1936; Prakash & Taylor 1966; Balech 1995). 1-3). 4b). Nomenclatural Types:Holotype: Ostreopsis mascarenensis Quod, 1994: fig. Cells of Dinophysis sacculus are long and oval with a rounded posterior (Figs. Cells are ovoid, broadest in mid-region, tapering slightly apically (Figs. Both valves are slightly concave in the center. The broad anterior end is truncate with a relatively small, shallow, broadly V-shaped depressed periflagellar area located apically on the right valve, slightly off-center (Figs. 1, 2, 4, 6). The cell surface is rugose, covered with shallow minute depressions (Figs. Cells swim freely or attach to floating detritus with mucous strands. 1990; Larsen & Moestrup 1992; Taylor et al. 1, 2). 2). 1-4). 14, 15Type Locality: Caribbean Sea: Carrie Bow Cay, Belize, Central America. Trichocyst pore number is highly variable in this species (Dodge 1985): 83 pores per valve were illustrated for one P. micans specimen (Dodge 1965), 101 pores per valve for another specimen (Dodge 1985), and 139 pores per valve in yet another specimen (Sournia 1986). Both valves are excavated (Figs. 1, 2, 4-6). Species Overview: Dinophysis tripos is an armoured, marine, planktonic dinoflagellate species. 1, 2). This species produces red tide blooms and has been associated with fish and invertebrate kills in Japan and Florida. The epitheca and hypotheca are not noticeably different in size. This species is also known to tolerate very high salinity: populations have been reported from hypersaline salt lagoons (>90o/oo) in the Caribbean islands (Steidinger & Tangen 1996). Taxonomic Description: Gymnodinium veneficum is an athecate species; i.e. 1993). 6); kidney-shaped in lateral view (15-19 m long). Reproduction: D. acuta reproduces asexually by binary fission. Species Comparison: Prorocentrum faustiae is similar in shape and size to P. hoffmannianum (45-55 m long and 40-45 m wide); however, the former lacks thecal areolae, which are very abundant on the latter. Cells are large dorso-ventrally flattened and roughly pentagonal (Figs. 1 2, 5). Along the sulcal margin, an overhanging ridge continues along the edge of postcingular plate 5''', and antapical plates 1'''' and 2'''' (Fig. The prominent wide LSL has a straight margin and is supported by three ribs (Figs. The first apical plate (1') comes in direct contact with the Po, and also bears the characteristic ventral pore (vp) (Fig. Cells are broadly ovate to rotundate with a rugose appearance (Figs. Ecology: A. pseudogonyaulax is a coastal and brackish water dinoflagellate species. Cells have a dorsoventral diameter of 108-123 um and a transdiameter of 76-86 um (Faust et al. Red tide blooms of A. tamarense have been reported in Europe (Mortensen 1985; Moestrup & Hansen 1988), and are common along the NE coast of North America (New England and Canada) (Bicknell & Walsh 1975; Hurst 1975; Loeblich & Loeblich 1975). Many authors consider Phalacroma to be synonymous with Dinophysis (Steidinger & Tangen 1996). Alexandrium monilatum is a species of armored, photosynthetic, marine dinoflagellates. 1, 2), each areolae with a pore (Fig. Since these two species rarely occur in the same area with the same importance, the possibility of misidentification is reduced (Zingone et al. Taxonomic Description: Species in this genus are laterally compressed with a small, cap-like epitheca and a much larger hypotheca (dorso-ventral depth of epitheca is 1/2 to 2/3 of hypotheca). The dorsal margin is smoothly convex to the antapex, while the ventral margin is straight or convex up to the third sulcal rib, then becomes concave or straight to the antapical end (Figs. Moreover, since D. sacculus and D. acuminata rarely occur in the same area with the same importance, the possibility of misidentification is reduced (Zingone et al. (2000) recently observed mixotrophic behaviour in G. galatheanum from the Chesapeake Bay. Surrounding the costae and apical pore are evenly spaced round pores (Fig. A thecated (i.e. Taxonomic Description: Gymnodinium sanguineum is an athecate species; i.e. 1995). 2). 1992). Reproduction: D. fortii reproduces asexually by binary fission. The sigmoid sulcus slightly invades the epitheca (Figs. 1995; Steidinger & Tangen 1996). Saxitoxins (STXs) are neurotoxins that bind voltage-gated sodium channels in cell membranes, inhibiting membrane depolarization and action potentials. Valves with short, evenly shaped broad-based spines (about 600-700 per valve) arranged in a regular pattern (Figs. Cells are small and oval to round in ventral view (Figs. The 1' plate with a ventral pore (vp). The sulcus is short, deeply concave and pouch-like, and is oriented to the right (Figs. a ventral pore of Coolia monotis is located on the right-hand ventral margin between apical plate 1' and precingular plate 6" which is similar to the location of the ventral pore of O. ovata; and 3.) Due to its small size, this species is probably often lost or overlooked in field samples (Dodge, 1982). 1-3). 1a-eType Locality: South Atlantic Ocean: Walvis Bay, South AfricaSynonyms: Gymnodinium micrum (Leadbeater et Dodge) Loeblich, IIIWoloszynskia micra Leadbeater and Dodge, 1966 The apical pore complex (APC) is oval to broadly triangular and pointed posteriorly (Fig. Species Overview: Pfiesteria piscicida is a putatively toxic dinoflagellate species with flagellated and cyst stages. 1). The reason STXs are produced by Alexandrium species is not altogether clear, yet there are few hypotheses: from acting as a grazing deterrent by other planktonic organisms, helping regulating bloom dynamics or even potentially assisting with chromosome structure, although, no strong evidence supports one over the other. 5) (Faust 1990b). 1-7, 14, 15Type Locality: NW Pacific Ocean: San Diego, California, USASynonyms: Gonyaulax catenella Whedon and Kofoid, 1936Protogonyaulax catenella (Whedon and Kofoid) Taylor, 1979. In ventral view the cingulum reveals two prominent structures: a ventral plate (Vp) with a ventral pore (Vo), and an adjacent curved rigid plate (Rp). 2-5)(Ab 1967). 1, 2). 1). The hypotheca is rounded with a slight indentation at its posterior end (Fig. The wide and deeply excavated cingulum is premedian, and is displaced in a descending fashion 1-1.5 times its width (Figs. Nomenclatural Types:Holotype: Dinophysis norvegica Claparde and Lachmann, 1859: 407, plate 20, fig. 5) (Adachi & Fukuyo 1979). We experimentally assessed the survival, grazing and behavioral responses of three shellfish species to A. monilatum. Nomenclatural Types:Holotype: Gonyaulax catenella Whedon and Kofoid, 1936: 25-31, figs. Toxicity: A. tamiyavanichi produces potent paralytic shellfish poison (PSP) toxins similar to those produced by A. tamarense: gonyautoxins (GTX), and saxitoxin (SXT)(Fukuyo et al. The broad epitheca is convex-conical, while the hypotheca is hemispherical with an obliquely flattened antapex (Figs. Toxicity: Prorocentrum lima is a toxic dinoflagellate species known to produce a number of toxic substances: fast-acting toxin (FAT)(Tindall et al. 1982). In general, they are covered with irregular coarse or fine sinuous lines or reticulations (Figs. It houses a prominent curved periflagellar collar adjacent to the auxiliary pore (Figs. Species Overview: Gyrodinium galatheanum is an unarmoured, marine, planktonic dinoflagellate species. Both lists incline anteriorly without entirely obscuring the epitheca (Fig. 1995; Zingone et al. Cells range in size from 20-40 m in width to 10-15 m in depth, and are slightly wider than long (Steidinger et al. 1987; Quod 1994), the Caribbean Sea (Besada et al. 3). 2, 5). 8). Reproduction: D. norvegica reproduces asexually by binary fission. Reproduction: G. galatheanum reproduces asexually by binary fission. com.). This natural range is expected to expand, considering the warming trend in global climate, and the increased human impact on coastal areas resulting in decreased water quality (Smayda 1992; Adler et al. In the cingulum the Vo is situated on the Vp next to the Rp (Figs. However, the former species is a non-chain former without a posterior attachment pore, bears a ventral pore on 1', and is usually found in warmer waters (Prakash & Taylor 1966; Balech 1995). This warm-water species is a red tide former that has been associated with fish and shellfish mortality events. Besada et al. Toxicity (Taylor et al. Nomenclatural Types:Holotype: Gymnodinium sanguineum Hirasaka, 1922:161-164, fig.1Type Locality: NW Pacific Ocean: Kozusa-ura, Gokasho Bay, JapanSynonyms: Gymnodinium splendens Lebour, 1925Gymnodinium nelsonii Martin, 1929. 1995), most often observed in semi-enclosed basins, estuaries and lagoons (Zingone et al. Toxicity: G. breve is a known toxic species that produces a series of brevetoxins (neurotoxins)(Baden 1983). 2) (Dodge 1975; 1982; Toriumi 1980; Steidinger & Tangen 1996; Faust et al. 1988; Morton & Faust 1997) and the SW Indian Ocean (Quod 1994). Cells have a dorso-ventral diameter of 65-75 um and a transdiameter of 57-63 um (Faust et al. The median cingulum is deeply excavated, devoid of lists, and is displaced in a descending fashion one time its width (Fig. Blooms of A. monilatum are prevalent in Chesapeake Bay in the late summer months, usually July-September, and have re-occurred almost annually since their emergence in 2007. Cells were later found as epiphytes on macroalgae in the Pacific Ocean (Taylor 1979; Yasumoto et al. Toxicity: This species produces an unnamed toxin which may cause ciguatera (Quod 1994). Ecology: G. sanguineum is a planktonic species common in estuarine and coastal waters. 1995; Steidinger & Tangen 1996). Habitat and Locality: G. breve populations are found in warm temperate to tropical waters, most regularly from the Gulf of Mexico, off the west coast of Florida. Mixotrophy has been observed for this species: in the Chesapeake Bay G. sanguineum preys on ciliate protozooplankton (Bockstahler & Coats 1993). The distinguishing feature at the species level is the shape of the first apical plate (1') on the epitheca (Fig. The large nucleus is ellipsoidal and located in the left central part of the cell (Figs. Reproduction: P. hoffmannianum reproduces asexually by binary fission. 1, 3). the development of the megacytic zone. Giacobbe and Gangemi (1997) have shown that the concavity of the dorsal margin can vary in the life history of the species; e.g. 2000). Chains of this species are quite distinctive, but can resemble A. tamiyavanichi; however, A. tamiyavanichi is a warm water species and can be distinguished from A. catenella by its conical shape (Taylor et al. 1998). Blooms occur along the East Coast from Maine to New Jersey and along the West Coast from Alaska to California, often in the late spring and summer. Chains of A. tamiyavanichi can resemble A. catenella. 3) (Dodge 1975; Toriumi 1980; Steidinger & Tangen 1996; Faust et al. krikoides and Alexandrium monilatum on the water microbiome in the York River Estuary, Chesapeake Bay, USA. Habitat and Locality: Populations of O. mascarenensis can be commonly found in shallow (2-5m) barrier reef environments and coral reefs in the SW Indian Ocean. Ecology: A. catenella is a planktonic dinoflagellate species associated with deadly paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) events mostly in the Pacific Ocean. Taxonomical Description: A distinctive species, cells of A. ostenfeldii are large and nearly spherical (Fig. 1995; Steidinger & Tangen 1996). P. piscicida and possibly other Pfiesteria-like species are suspected to be responsible for a number of major fish and shellfish kills in the North Carolina Albemarle-Pamlico estuary, and in the Maryland Chesapeake Bay (Burkholder et al. Ecology: P. micans is one of the most common and diversified species in the genus Prorocentrum. The epitheca and hypotheca are equal in size. 6-8). Blooms have been reported from the British Isles (Dodge 1977), Scandinavia (Dahl & Yndestad 1985; Krogh et al. 3, 4, 6). Species Overview: Alexandrium pseudogonyaulax is an armoured, marine, planktonic dinoflagellate. Morphology and Structure: D. sacculus is most likely a photosynthetic species; Larsen and Moestrup (1992) state that 'chloroplasts are probably present'. More recently it has been identified in the western Atlantic off the east coast of Florida (Steidinger et al. 1966; Prakash et al. Ecology: P. hoffmannianum is a benthic species. 1995; Steidinger & Tangen 1996). Reproduction: O. mascarenensis reproduces asexually by binary fission. 1987; 1988). 1995). 5) (Quod 1994; Faust et al. Reproduction: A. pseudogonyaulax reproduces asexually by binary fission. 1, 5). 1-3). Solum (1962) later considered them as different forms of D. norvegica. In addition, the illustration of P. concavum (fig. Populations have been recorded from Alexandria Harbor, Egypt (Halim 1960), Italy (Montresor et al. The thecal surface is smooth and covered with sparsely scattered large pores with smooth edges (Figs. Etymology: The species 'faustiae' is named in honor of Dr. Maria Faust, Smithsonian Institution, for her advancements in the taxonomy of non-planktonic dinoflagellates (Morton 1998). Many authors consider Phalacroma to be synonymous with Dinophysis (Steidinger & Tangen 1996). Cells are tear-drop to heart shaped, rounded anteriorly, pointed posteriorly, and broadest around the middle (Figs. com.) 1-3). 1990; Kim 1998). And plate 1p is broad in G. toxicus, whereas it is long and narrow in G. belizeanus (Faust 1995). The sulcus is comprised of several irregularly shaped plates. 1, 2). 1, 2, 4). Species Overview: P. lima is an armoured, marine, benthic dinoflagellate species with world-wide distribution. Nomenclatural Types:Holotype: Ostreopsis ovata Fukuyo, 1981: figs. Cells of Dinophysis acuminata are small to medium, almost oval or elliptical in shape (Figs. It produces toxins that, when present in . 1-4). The dorsal end of the cingulum is concave, strongly inclined and (Figs. 1995; Steidinger & Tangen 1996). Morphology and Structure: G. pulchellum is a photosynthetic species with several yellowish-brown chloroplasts. 2). 1, 4). Habitat and Locality: Cells of P. belizeanum are common in tropical coastal waters (Steidinger & Tangen 1996) associated with floating detritus (Faust 1993a). It is associated with toxic PSP blooms in cold water coastal regions. The anteriorly situated cingulum has two narrow, well developed lists, anterior cingular list (ACL) and posterior cingular list (PCL), supported by many ribs (Figs. 18Type Locality: unknownSynonyms: Phalacroma rapa Stein, 1883Phalacroma mitra Schtt, 1895Phalacroma dolichopterygium Jrgensen, 1923. Morphology and Structure: P. maculosum is a photosynthetic species containing golden-brown chloroplasts and a centrally located pyrenoid. Steidinger (1983) recognized that the marginal pores of P. lima can be used to differentiate this species at the light microscope level from completely areolated species such as P. concavum or P. compressum which are similar in shape. It houses the Vo situated on the Vp, and the Rp (Fig. The high ACL obscures the low epitheca (Balech 1976; Dodge 1982; Larsen & Moestrup 1992). Robinson and Brown (1983) and Voltolina (1993) observed possible sexual stages of G. sanguineum from a recurrent bloom. 1986), Japan (Ikeda et al. The apical pore plate (Po) is 15 m long, narrow and curved (Figs. 1996). 2, 6) (Adachi & Fukuyo 1979; Fukuyo 1981). 1-6). 1995; Steidinger & Tangen 1996). 4). 1985). Surface thecal ornamentation in this species is similar to a number of other Dinophysis species: D. acuta, D. caudata, D. norvegica and D. fortii (Hallegraeff & Lucas 1988). The sulcal lists may have surface ornamentation, or they may be smooth (Balech 1976; Dodge 1982; Steidinger & Tangen 1996). The apical groove can produce a slight indentation at the apex (Fig. 1-3). 1, 2, 4-6) (von Stosch 1980; Dodge 1975; Faust 1990b; Faust 1991; Steidinger & Tangen 1996). Habitat and Locality: Pfiesteria piscicida was first identified from the Pamlico Sound in North Carolina. 1998). prey is suctioned into a food vacuole via a feeding tube or peduncle (Fig. Cells almost immediately attach to the nearest substrate. It is associated with toxic PSP blooms in Pacific coastal regions.
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